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Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples

Mark Blagrove, Andrew Thomas Orcid Logo

Swansea University Authors: Mark Blagrove, Andrew Thomas Orcid Logo

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DOI (Published version): https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1

Abstract

Questions about ‘gender identity’ are frequently included in demographic and monitoring questionnaires and the term is used frequently in conversation and research. However, its meaning in often uncertain, ranging from a euphemism for sex to an ‘internal sense of gender’, or a combination of levels...

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Published: Springer Science and Business Media LLC Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples 2026
Online Access: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1
URI: https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa71850
first_indexed 2026-05-05T14:03:18Z
last_indexed 2026-05-09T05:05:30Z
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spelling 2026-05-08T13:30:58.6469655 v2 71850 2026-05-05 Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples 8c78ee008e650b9f0a463bae56a5636c Mark Blagrove Mark Blagrove true false a43308ae6d7f5b8d5ab0daff5b832a96 0000-0001-5251-7923 Andrew Thomas Andrew Thomas true false 2026-05-05 Questions about ‘gender identity’ are frequently included in demographic and monitoring questionnaires and the term is used frequently in conversation and research. However, its meaning in often uncertain, ranging from a euphemism for sex to an ‘internal sense of gender’, or a combination of levels of masculinity/femininity and beliefs about one’s sex and presentation. Given differences and uncertainties in the definition of gender identity, this research assessed frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in having a gender identity. Three representative samples from the UK (N = 302 & 300) and the US (N = 301) (ages 18 - 87; 431 males, 472 females), recruited via Prolific, were presented with 15 sets of questions. Each set included a factual biographic question (e.g., interest in sports), a question on presence or absence of an identity related to the biography question, and an importance rating of that identity if present. A response of ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you have a gender identity?’ was given by 23.6% and 21.1% of the UK samples, and 20.3% of the US sample. Gender identity was more likely to be affirmed by females (OR = 1.97) and by those who hold strong critical social justice attitudes (OR = 1.33). Importance of one’s gender identity was rated more highly by females (OR = 1.97). Future research should investigate the different understandings individuals have of the term gender identity and longitudinally assess societal changes in incidence of belief or lack of belief in gender identity. Other Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples Springer Science and Business Media LLC Critical social justice attitudes; gender; gender identity; identity; sex differences. 5 5 2026 2026-05-05 https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1 https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1 Preprint currently being refereed by journal. COLLEGE NANME COLLEGE CODE Swansea University Not Required 2026-05-08T13:30:58.6469655 2026-05-05T14:53:55.9529071 Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences School of Psychology Mark Blagrove 1 Andrew Thomas 0000-0001-5251-7923 2
title Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
spellingShingle Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
Mark Blagrove
Andrew Thomas
title_short Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
title_full Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
title_fullStr Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
title_full_unstemmed Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
title_sort Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
author_id_str_mv 8c78ee008e650b9f0a463bae56a5636c
a43308ae6d7f5b8d5ab0daff5b832a96
author_id_fullname_str_mv 8c78ee008e650b9f0a463bae56a5636c_***_Mark Blagrove
a43308ae6d7f5b8d5ab0daff5b832a96_***_Andrew Thomas
author Mark Blagrove
Andrew Thomas
author2 Mark Blagrove
Andrew Thomas
format Other
publishDate 2026
institution Swansea University
doi_str_mv https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1
publisher Frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in gender identity in representative UK and US samples
college_str Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
hierarchytype
hierarchy_top_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_top_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
hierarchy_parent_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_parent_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
department_str School of Psychology{{{_:::_}}}Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences{{{_:::_}}}School of Psychology
url https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9607536/v1
document_store_str 0
active_str 0
description Questions about ‘gender identity’ are frequently included in demographic and monitoring questionnaires and the term is used frequently in conversation and research. However, its meaning in often uncertain, ranging from a euphemism for sex to an ‘internal sense of gender’, or a combination of levels of masculinity/femininity and beliefs about one’s sex and presentation. Given differences and uncertainties in the definition of gender identity, this research assessed frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in having a gender identity. Three representative samples from the UK (N = 302 & 300) and the US (N = 301) (ages 18 - 87; 431 males, 472 females), recruited via Prolific, were presented with 15 sets of questions. Each set included a factual biographic question (e.g., interest in sports), a question on presence or absence of an identity related to the biography question, and an importance rating of that identity if present. A response of ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you have a gender identity?’ was given by 23.6% and 21.1% of the UK samples, and 20.3% of the US sample. Gender identity was more likely to be affirmed by females (OR = 1.97) and by those who hold strong critical social justice attitudes (OR = 1.33). Importance of one’s gender identity was rated more highly by females (OR = 1.97). Future research should investigate the different understandings individuals have of the term gender identity and longitudinally assess societal changes in incidence of belief or lack of belief in gender identity.
published_date 2026-05-05T06:30:20Z
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score 11.104773

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